For clarification, red cabbage and purple cabbage are the same thing, their appearance may be different depending on the pH of the soil they are grown in. They can appear dark red in acidic soils, dark purple in neutral soil, and greenish to yellow in alkaline soil. These colour changes are directly related to anthocyanins, which are known to be changeable with pH.
When cooked they normally turn purple and need adjusting with acidic ingredients such as vinegar or acidic fruit. There have been 36 anthocyanins found in red cabbage. Instead of using the usual herbalist extraction method, I took my inspiration from the textile industry, particularly the more traditional way of dyeing natural fibres. Instead of using a medium such as glycerine or alcohol, I boiled the cabbage in water for 30 minutes, removed the cabbage and boiled further to reduce the water content.
I then added glycerine to preserve. Below, I give detailed instructions:. Cut the red cabbage and add to a large bowl. I used a small cabbage, it was probably about g in weight. Reduce heat and leave to simmer for 30 minutes until you get a rich purple extraction. Put the cabbage water back on the heat and simmer until it is greatly reduced. Weigh your final amount of extract and add an equal amount of glycerine to preserve. You will notice that I did not weigh or measure anything.
In anthocyanins, smaller side groups tend to keep absorption on the shorter wavelengths producing blue colors , and larger side groups cause the absorbed wavelengths to be a bit longer producing red colors.
In addition to the side groups, the environment of the cyanidin molecule you extracted from red cabbage affects the molecule. The molecule is in solution, and the hydroxide groups OH often give up their hydrogen atoms, as ions, into the surrounding water. When they temporarily lose the H, their resonant frequency shifts a bit towards shorter wavelengths. This is the effect:. Thus, by making the solution more acidic lower pH and more hydronium ions , or more basic higher pH and fewer hydronium ions , you cause the cyanidin to change its structure, which then changes the absorbed wavelengths.
Color changes are basically caused by changes in electron movement or confinement in a double bond. More confinement makes the light absorbed bluer shorter wavelength , and less confinement makes it redder longer wavelength. When a hydrogen ion combines with the basic form of an indicator, it will confine two formerly mobile electrons to a single covalent bond with the hydrogen shifting the light that is absorbed toward the blue end of the spectrum. The baking soda is sodium bicarbonate and the soaps have sodium hydroxide as an ingredient.
The color changes are usually in the red family for acids and in the green family for bases. Some soaps might be green with the red cabbage juice. A purple color would be close to neutral neither acid or base. You can test your tap water with red cabbage juice. If you have hard water, your town or municipality probably treats the water with potassium hydroxide. Nonetheless, no study reports on the mechanism of the positive charge at the oxygen atom of the C-ring of the anthocyanin structure for scavenging of free radicals.
It has also been hypothesized that the superoxide O 2 o- radical favors the oxonium ion of anthocyanin [ ].
During the development of CVD, oxidative stress causes vascular inflammation. These molecules are the prognostic markers for CVD, also called the plasma lipid profile and antioxidant biomarkers. Oxidative free radicals also initiate inflammatory responses of vascular endothelial cells and upregulate cell adhesion molecules and chemokines.
Another double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial also shows consumption of anthocyanins mg anthocyanins twice daily for 12 weeks significantly increased the serum HDL-cholesterol level In addition, a meta-analysis concludes that anthocyanin supplementation to patients with dyslipidemia gave a significant reduction in serum TC, triglyceride, and LDL-cholesterol levels, as well as a significant increased in the HDL-cholesterol level [ ].
COX-1 is essential for formation of thromboxane in blood platelets and maintaining integrity of gastrointestinal epithelium. It is expressed in most of the tissues. It is known for involvment in cell signaling, regulating angiogenesis in endothelial cells, and maintaining tissue homeostasis. The biosynthetic pathway of PGs has been reported by Ricciotti and FitzGerald [ ] in their review article.
PGE2 and PGI2 are typically expressed in the vascular smooth muscle cells, platelets, as well as brain and kidney cells. PGI2 is the key prostanoid that regulates cardiovascular homeostasis [ ]. Oxidative stress increases expression of PGI2 in the vascular cells. COX-2 is overexpressed in benign polyps and adenocarcinomas [ ]. The role and mechanism of COX-2 in cell proliferation and cell death have been clearly explained in a review article [ ]. The authors of this review article explain the roles of COX-2 in the prevention of cancer, which involve cell signaling and regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis.
They also discuss the role of PGE2 in inhibiting apoptosis in several in vitro models. Mitogen-activated protein kinases MAPKs are the protein kinases involved in cell survival, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis [ ].
Anthocyanin-rich pomegranate extract also had a positive effect on UV-B-mediated phosphorylation of MAPKs pathway in normal human epidermal keratinocytes. Anthocyanin extract obtained from Vitis coignetiae Pulliat has anti-tumor activity.
Chronic inflammation is linked to progression of a disease that is characterized by excessive production of cytokines, changes in the pattern of cellular signaling, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Similar to most of the flavonoids, anthocyanins reduce inflammation through several mechanisms to attenuate and to prevent inflammatory responses.
During the inflammation process, these cytokines activate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal that acts on the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex. Anthocyanins are colored pigments in plants that possess several health benefits. These colored pigments appear red in acidic condition and show a blue hue in alkaline solution.
Acylated and copigmentated anthocyanidins have higher heat stability, thus maintain the structure even in different pH conditions. Anthocyanins are the value-added colorants that can be used for preventing several diseases, including CVDs, cancers, diabetes, some metabolic diseases, and microbial infection.
These compounds also improve visual ability and have neuroprotective effect. Several mechanisms of action are reported for the anthocyanidins and anthocyanins in prevention of these diseases. In a nutshell, free-radical scavenging, changes in blood biomarkers, COX and MAPKs pathways, as well as inflammatory cytokines signaling are the typical mechanisms of action of these colored pigments in prevention of diseases.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Food Nutr Res v. Food Nutr Res. Published online Aug Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Apr 10; Accepted Jul This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
Introduction Anthocyanins are blue, red, or purple pigments found in plants, especially flowers, fruits, and tubers. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Types of anthocyanin in plants Anthocyanin is one of the subclasses of phenolic phytochemicals. Figure 2. Figure 3. Color and stability of anthocyanin pigments Stability of anthocyanin color based on pH Stability of anthocyanins is dependent on the type of anthocyanin pigment, copigments, light, temperature, pH, metal ions, enzymes, oxygen, and antioxidants [ 15 ].
Effect of copigmentation and temperature on color change Copigmentation and temperature are known to influence the color change of anthocyanins in a solution in addition to different pH conditions.
Anthocyanin pigments as food colorants and additives The use of natural colorant and additives in processed foods and beverages is important for increasing consumer acceptability of these products. Solubility of anthocyanin pigments Anthocyanins occur as flavylium ions in grapes and wines. Extraction and identification of anthocyanins The use of organic solvents such as methanol and ethanol to extract anthocyanin pigments causes a toxicity issue. Anthocyanins and anthocyanidin in plants Anthocyanins are found abundant in plants, including red-purplish or red to blue-colored fruits, leaves, flowers, roots, and grains.
Table 1. Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in fruit, vegetables, and grains. Types of anthocyanin and anthocyanidin in fruit Acai berry Euterpe oleracea Martius — whole fruit [ 43 ] cyaglu, cyanrut, delgal, delglu, delrut, peoglu Berry Berberis lycium Royle — whole fruit [ 44 ] cya-3,5-dihex, cyagal, cyaglu, cyalat, cyarut, delglu, mal-3,5-dihex, pel-3,5-diglu, pelpentoxilhex, pelrut, pel-hex, peorut Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus L.
Stuntz] — whole fruit [ 49 ] cyaglu, cyasam, cya-diglu, cya-sam-glu, delglu, del-3,5-diglu, delsam, delsamglu Nitratia Nitraria tangutorun Bobr. Mollar de Elche — edible flesh [ 52 ] cya-3,5-diglu, cyaglu, cya-pen, del-3,5-di-glu, delglu, pel-3,5-di-glu, pelglu Raspberry Rubus idaeus L.
Types of anthocyanin and anthocyanidin in vegetables and grains Black carrots Daucus carota ssp. Merrill] [ 56 ] cyagal, cyaglu, delglu, peoglu. Purple corn Zea mays L. Heugjinju [ 60 ] cya, cyaglu, peoglu Transgenic purple tomato Solanum lycopersicum L. Potential uses of anthocyanin pigments Anthocyanins extracted from plants have been used as food additives.
Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical effects of anthocyanins Anthocyanin is one of the bioactive components as nutraceutical and traditional medicine. Table 2. Prevention of chronic diseases using plant anthocyanins. Table 3. Other health benefits of plant anthocyanins.
Health benefits of anthocyanins References Visual health Improved visual function in patients with normal tension glaucoma [ 90 ] Prevented impairment of photoreceptor cell function during retinal inflammation [ 91 ] Decreased lens opacity together with the decreased MDA level [ 92 ] Suppressed cell death of HLE-B3 lens epithelial cell line under H 2 O 2 -induced oxidative stress [ 93 ] Prevented retinal degeneration induced by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea [ 94 ] Increased ocular blood flows but no significant changes on intraocular pressure [ 95 ] Anti-obesity Improved weight gain and lipid profile on obese rats.
Antioxidants The health and therapeutic effects of anthocyanin are mainly contributed by its antioxidative activities. Angiogenesis and development of diseases Endothelial cells are the main cells involved in the angiogenesis process. Cardiovascular health Epidemiological studies show the relationships between anthocyanin-rich foods and CVDs, as well as the relationship between total anthocyanin intake and risk of developing these cardiovascular-related diseases.
Anticancer Anthocyanins have been extensively studied for their anticancer properties, as well as antiangiogenesis, based on in vitro and cell culture studies, and animal models. Antidiabetes The antidiabetic effect of anthocyanins from plants has been widely studied. Visual health Anthocyanin pigments are important nutraceuticals in maintaining good vision. Anti-obesity effect Anthocyanidin and anthocyanin pigments possess anti-obesity properties. Antimicrobial Polyphenolic compounds including anthocyanins possess antimicrobial activity against a wide range of microorganisms, especially in inhibiting the growth of food-borne pathogens [ ].
Mechanisms of action in disease prevention Anthocyanins are the good antioxidants for preventing or reducing the risk of disease. Free-radical scavenging pathway Free radicals are generated during oxidative stress in the cellular system.
Cyclooxygenase COX pathway COX-1 is essential for formation of thromboxane in blood platelets and maintaining integrity of gastrointestinal epithelium. Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway Mitogen-activated protein kinases MAPKs are the protein kinases involved in cell survival, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis [ ]. Inflammatory cytokines signaling Chronic inflammation is linked to progression of a disease that is characterized by excessive production of cytokines, changes in the pattern of cellular signaling, and infiltration of inflammatory cells.
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